Thursday, October 30, 2008
Steps Towards Design Process
In getting started, I will establish a procedure for meeting with the client. In that initial meeting we will need to discuss project/course goals. I must establish a list of questions that should be used in the initial client meeting. Course objectives, time line constraints, and available resources should be covered in the questions. Also, questions should cover project contributors, such as subject matter experts. Also, questions should include an assessment of organizational/course needs and learner needs. Perhaps developing a template or two that could be used for a variety of contexts would be helpful. The look and feel of the learning environment should be established in meeting with the client. In developing the course within the framework of CSCL, multimedia needs and technical issues must be considered. Will there be Compliance issues such as SCORM/AICC? What form of assessment and evaluation will be included?
Monday, October 27, 2008
Knowledge Building and Discourse
Knowledge Building and Discourse
Based on the work of Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006), “Sustained knowledge advancement is seen as essential for social progress of all kinds and for the solution of societal problems. From this standpoint the fundamental task of education is to enculturate youth into this knowledge-creating civilization and to help them find a place in it” (p. 97). Knowledge Building allows for discourse, negotiation and sharing of ideas: “Idea improvement is an explicit principle, something that guides the efforts of students and teachers rather than something that remains implicit in inquiry and learning activities” (Scardamalia, 2002, p. 77). Knowledge Building also provides opportunities for the construction and development of knowledge artifacts. Artifacts are shaped throughout the learning process and include artifacts produced by use of cognitive tools such as plans, graphs, concept maps, and models (Quintana et al, 2006). Knowledge building is centered in pedagogical practice (authentic activity, project-based learning, situated cognition, etc). Knowledge Building requires keeping a persistent record of discourse and providing common spaces for group members to share (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006). For example, communities of practice and/or communities of learners require common space for members and establish that group size should be small. Scaffolding and supports should be designed for a variety of perspectives (small groups' preferences as well as individual learning preferences). Activities should reinforce the transforming personal perspective to group perspective:
In effective collaborative knowledge building, the group must engage in thinking together about a problem or task and produce a knowledge artifact such as a verbal problem clarification, a textual solution proposal, or a more developed theoretical inscription that integrates their different perspectives on the topic and represents a shared group result that they have negotiated (Stahl, 2006, p. 3).
Such activities support interactions and enable the co-creation of knowledge and the development of knowledge artifacts.
Based on the work of Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006), “Sustained knowledge advancement is seen as essential for social progress of all kinds and for the solution of societal problems. From this standpoint the fundamental task of education is to enculturate youth into this knowledge-creating civilization and to help them find a place in it” (p. 97). Knowledge Building allows for discourse, negotiation and sharing of ideas: “Idea improvement is an explicit principle, something that guides the efforts of students and teachers rather than something that remains implicit in inquiry and learning activities” (Scardamalia, 2002, p. 77). Knowledge Building also provides opportunities for the construction and development of knowledge artifacts. Artifacts are shaped throughout the learning process and include artifacts produced by use of cognitive tools such as plans, graphs, concept maps, and models (Quintana et al, 2006). Knowledge building is centered in pedagogical practice (authentic activity, project-based learning, situated cognition, etc). Knowledge Building requires keeping a persistent record of discourse and providing common spaces for group members to share (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006). For example, communities of practice and/or communities of learners require common space for members and establish that group size should be small. Scaffolding and supports should be designed for a variety of perspectives (small groups' preferences as well as individual learning preferences). Activities should reinforce the transforming personal perspective to group perspective:
In effective collaborative knowledge building, the group must engage in thinking together about a problem or task and produce a knowledge artifact such as a verbal problem clarification, a textual solution proposal, or a more developed theoretical inscription that integrates their different perspectives on the topic and represents a shared group result that they have negotiated (Stahl, 2006, p. 3).
Such activities support interactions and enable the co-creation of knowledge and the development of knowledge artifacts.
Project based Learning
Project-based Learning
Studies indicate that most students are bored in school (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993). When students are not engaged, boredom usually interrupts focus; therefore, students are less likely to learn (Blumenfeld et al, 1991). Learning sciences research suggests that project-based learning, a form of situated learning, offers a potential solution to the problem of boredom in school. Students are more engaged and less likely to be bored (Krajcik & Blumenfeld, 2006). Students learn by doing and applying ideas through real-world activities. The 5 key features of project-based learning include:
1. Instruction Starts with a driving question, a problem to be solved;
2. Students explore the driving question by participating in authentic, situated- inquiry. As students explore the question, they develop an understanding of the discipline and also how to apply their understanding;
3. Students, teachers, and community members engage in collaborative activities to find answers to the question;
4. During the inquiry process, students are scaffolded with learning technologies that allow them to perform activities normally beyond their individual ability; 5.Students create a set of products to address the needs of the question. These products are shared artifacts that represent the learning of the class (Blumenfeld et al, 1991; Krajcik, et al., 1994; Krajcik, Czerniak, & Berger, 2002).
The theoretical background of project-based learning includes active construction, situated learning, social interactions and cognitive tools.
Learning sciences research indicates deep understanding occurs when learners actively construct meaning based on their experiences and interactions. Situated learning requires that learning take place in real-world, authentic context. For example, in science, when students design their own investigations to answer a question that is important to them or to their community, they discover value in science and also develop a deeper understanding of how science can be applied to solve real-world problems. Social interaction plays a key role in learning; therefore, the best learning results when students, teachers and subject matter experts from a community work together in a situated activity to construct shared solutions to problems as well as to expand understandings of underlying principles. Deeper comprehension is developed through sharing, applying and debating ideas with others. This process of back and forth interaction creates a community of learners. The use of cognitive tools amplifies and expands what students are able to learn (Krajcik & Blumenfeld, 2006) . Learning technologies can support students in accessing and collecting a range of information; provide tools for visualizing complex, abstract ideas; allow for distance collaboration; assist in planning, building and testing models; and allow for the development of multimedia knowledge artifacts that can be shared globally.
Project-based learning reinforces an awareness that there may be more than one way to interpret data and more than one way to solve a problem. Driving questions guide instruction and are meaningful and important to learners. The driving question should be a tool for organizing and directing the activities of the project, as well as provide an authentic context in which students can establish and explore learning goals. Continuity and coherence are instilled in the project with the development of quality driving questions. Features of driving questions include the following attributes:
1. Feasible. Students can design and perform an investigation to answer the question;
2. Worthwhile. Question contains rich science content that aligns with national and state standards and relates to real-world science;
3. Contextualized. Question is real-world and important;
4. Relevant. Question is meaningful, interesting and exciting to learners; and
5. Ethical. Question does no harm to individuals, organizations or the environment (Krajcik et al, 2002).
Studies indicate that most students are bored in school (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993). When students are not engaged, boredom usually interrupts focus; therefore, students are less likely to learn (Blumenfeld et al, 1991). Learning sciences research suggests that project-based learning, a form of situated learning, offers a potential solution to the problem of boredom in school. Students are more engaged and less likely to be bored (Krajcik & Blumenfeld, 2006). Students learn by doing and applying ideas through real-world activities. The 5 key features of project-based learning include:
1. Instruction Starts with a driving question, a problem to be solved;
2. Students explore the driving question by participating in authentic, situated- inquiry. As students explore the question, they develop an understanding of the discipline and also how to apply their understanding;
3. Students, teachers, and community members engage in collaborative activities to find answers to the question;
4. During the inquiry process, students are scaffolded with learning technologies that allow them to perform activities normally beyond their individual ability; 5.Students create a set of products to address the needs of the question. These products are shared artifacts that represent the learning of the class (Blumenfeld et al, 1991; Krajcik, et al., 1994; Krajcik, Czerniak, & Berger, 2002).
The theoretical background of project-based learning includes active construction, situated learning, social interactions and cognitive tools.
Learning sciences research indicates deep understanding occurs when learners actively construct meaning based on their experiences and interactions. Situated learning requires that learning take place in real-world, authentic context. For example, in science, when students design their own investigations to answer a question that is important to them or to their community, they discover value in science and also develop a deeper understanding of how science can be applied to solve real-world problems. Social interaction plays a key role in learning; therefore, the best learning results when students, teachers and subject matter experts from a community work together in a situated activity to construct shared solutions to problems as well as to expand understandings of underlying principles. Deeper comprehension is developed through sharing, applying and debating ideas with others. This process of back and forth interaction creates a community of learners. The use of cognitive tools amplifies and expands what students are able to learn (Krajcik & Blumenfeld, 2006) . Learning technologies can support students in accessing and collecting a range of information; provide tools for visualizing complex, abstract ideas; allow for distance collaboration; assist in planning, building and testing models; and allow for the development of multimedia knowledge artifacts that can be shared globally.
Project-based learning reinforces an awareness that there may be more than one way to interpret data and more than one way to solve a problem. Driving questions guide instruction and are meaningful and important to learners. The driving question should be a tool for organizing and directing the activities of the project, as well as provide an authentic context in which students can establish and explore learning goals. Continuity and coherence are instilled in the project with the development of quality driving questions. Features of driving questions include the following attributes:
1. Feasible. Students can design and perform an investigation to answer the question;
2. Worthwhile. Question contains rich science content that aligns with national and state standards and relates to real-world science;
3. Contextualized. Question is real-world and important;
4. Relevant. Question is meaningful, interesting and exciting to learners; and
5. Ethical. Question does no harm to individuals, organizations or the environment (Krajcik et al, 2002).
notes related to collaboration
Should provide opportunities for reflection.
1. Build instruction based upon students' prior knowledge and community knowledge advancement. 2. Provide scaffolding that is tailored to the learners needs in achieving the goals of the moment. 3. Scaffolding is added gradually, modified, and removed based on the needs of the learner. 4. Allow opportunities for students to Externalize and Articulate their unformed and still developing understanding of concepts. Discourse becomes a means for collaborative problem solving. As understanding becomes more developed, articulation and externalization act as reinforces for learning in an interative knowledge building process where knowledge develops as ideas improvement.
5. Provide opportunities for reflection on cognitive activities or metacognition. Give students time to reflect on the process of learning and on the knowledge they are acquiring. Understanding is emergent 6. Build instruction from the concrete to the abstract.
Learning groups should be unstructured and students should be the facilitators. The learning environment of the group should be informal and roles of the participants should be emergent. Tasks are undefined for individual group members. Assessment should be in the form of group assessment as shared meaning and knowledge artifacts are produced.
1. Build instruction based upon students' prior knowledge and community knowledge advancement. 2. Provide scaffolding that is tailored to the learners needs in achieving the goals of the moment. 3. Scaffolding is added gradually, modified, and removed based on the needs of the learner. 4. Allow opportunities for students to Externalize and Articulate their unformed and still developing understanding of concepts. Discourse becomes a means for collaborative problem solving. As understanding becomes more developed, articulation and externalization act as reinforces for learning in an interative knowledge building process where knowledge develops as ideas improvement.
5. Provide opportunities for reflection on cognitive activities or metacognition. Give students time to reflect on the process of learning and on the knowledge they are acquiring. Understanding is emergent 6. Build instruction from the concrete to the abstract.
Learning groups should be unstructured and students should be the facilitators. The learning environment of the group should be informal and roles of the participants should be emergent. Tasks are undefined for individual group members. Assessment should be in the form of group assessment as shared meaning and knowledge artifacts are produced.
Proposal for CSCL Research Project
Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) has been defined by Koschmann (1996) as “a field of study centrally concerned with meaning and the practices of meaning-making in the context of joint activity, and the ways in which these practices are mediated though designed artifacts” (p. 2). CSCL is designed to analyze how the combination of computers/technology and collaborative activities enhance learning. The purpose of this paper is to describe a study that would investigate the use of collaborative activities in a project-based learning environment to move group participants from novice to experts within the learning community through the use of appropriate scaffolding and to enhance female self-efficacy related to science.
According to a 2004 study, “While women make up nearly half of the U.S. workforce, they make up only 26 percent of the science and engineering workforce” (U.S. Department of Education, 2007, p. 3). Gender differences in perceptions about academic abilities in relation to math and science are specifically evidenced in middle school aged children:
In general, researchers have found that girls and women have less confidence in their math abilities than males do and that from early adolescence girls show less interest in math or science careers. This gender difference is interesting, and somewhat puzzling, given that males and females generally enroll in similar courses and display similar abilities (at least as measured by course grades). In other words, girls, particularly as they move out of elementary school and into middle and high school and beyond, often underestimate their abilities in mathematics and science (Institute of Education Sciences-U.S. Department of Education, 2007, p. 6).
Because of the emphasis on increasing female self-efficacy in science, female scientists will be recruited as participants in the collaborative work. According to the study conducted by the Institute of Education Science, one strategy for addressing female self-efficacy related to science is the use of female role models:
Teachers should expose girls to female role models who have achieved in math
or science in order to promote positive beliefs regarding women’s abilities in
math and science. Even in elementary school, girls are aware of the stereotype
that men are better in math and science than women are. Exposing girls to
female role models (e.g., through biographies, guest speakers, or tutoring by
older female students) can invalidate these stereotypes (Institute of Education Sciences-U.S. Department of Education, 2007, p. 5).
This study will address girls’ self-efficacy related to science and also extend our understanding of the learning process of participants through the use of scaffolding in a CSCL environment for adolescent boys and girls.
Studies indicate most students are bored in school (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993). Valuing course objectives and being engaged in course activities, as well as believing one has the ability to be successful in the course, are critical factors in learner motivation. “Beliefs of personal efficacy constitute the key factor of human agency. If people believe they have no power to produce results, they will not attempt to make things happen” (Bandura, 1977, p. 3). When students are not engaged and are bored in class, they are less likely to increase their knowledge (Blumenfeld et al, 1991). An inquiry learning culture produces engaged and active learning, as well as more enhanced production of explanations in both males and females (Prinsen et al, 2007). Learning sciences research suggests that the inquiry learning culture of project-based learning may offer a potential solution to the problem of boredom in school.
The theoretical background of project-based learning includes active construction, situated learning, social interactions and cognitive tools. Project based learning increases student engagement; therefore, students are less likely to be bored. Students learn by doing and applying ideas through real-world activities. The five key features of project-based learning include the following:
1. Instruction begins with a driving question and a problem to be solved.
2. Students explore the driving question by participating in authentic, situated- inquiry. As students explore the question, they develop an understanding of the discipline and also how to apply their understanding.
3. Students, teachers, and community members engage in collaborative activities to find answers to the question.
4. During the inquiry process, students are scaffolded with learning technologies that allow them to perform activities normally beyond their individual ability.
5. Students create a set of products to address the needs of the question. These products are shared artifacts that represent the learning of the class (Blumenfeld et al, 1991; Krajcik, et al., 1994; Krajcik, Czerniak, & Berger, 2002).
Learning sciences research shows that deep understanding occurs when learners actively construct meaning based on their experiences and interactions in the world. Situated learning requires that learning take place in real-world, authentic context. For example, in science, when students design their own investigation to answer a question that is important to them or to their community, they see the value of science and also see how science can be applied to solve real-world problems. Social interaction also plays a key role in learning. The best learning results when students, teachers and subject matter experts from the community work together in a situated activity to construct shared solutions to problems and new understandings of underlying principles. Deeper understanding is developed through sharing, applying and debating ideas with others and this process of back and forth interaction creates a community of learners (Vygotsky, 1978; Lave, 1991; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996). Also, the use of cognitive tools can amplify and expand what students are able to learn. Learning technologies can support students in accessing and collecting a range of information; provide tools for visualizing complex, abstract ideas; allow for distance collaboration; assist in planning, building and testing models; and allow for the development of multimedia knowledge artifacts that can be shared globally. Using the principles of group interaction to form collaborative communities to construct knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978; Lave, 1991; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996), the learning activities will occur in an authentic group context, be project based, and include activities with an authentic focus (Kearsley & Shneiderman, 1999). According to Vygotsky (1978) classroom social interactions should be arranged in such a way that weaker students will be “scaffolded” by stronger students. Vygotsky situates learning in the zone of proximal development which he posits is the “distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86).
Project-based learning creates a setting for the discovery that there may be more than one technique for interpreting data and more than one approach for solving a problem. “Individuals generate personal beliefs from their own perspectives, but they do so on the basis of sociocultural knowledge, shared language, and external representations. Further, these beliefs become knowledge through social interaction, communication, discussion, clarification, and negotiation. Knowledge is a socially mediated product” (Stahl, 2006, p. 205). Driving questions guide instruction and should be meaningful and important to learners. The driving questions are tools for organizing and directing the activities of the project. The driving questions provide an authentic context in which students will be able to establish and explore learning goals, as well as provide continuity and coherence to the project. Specific features of driving questions include:
1. The question is feasible; therefore, students can design and perform investigations to answer the question. 2. The question is worthwhile; therefore, appropriate responses should contain rich science content that aligns with national and state standards and relates to real-world science. 3. The question is contextualized in that the question is an important, real-world question. 4. The question is meaningful, interesting and exciting to learners. 5. The question is ethical in that in addressing the question, students will do no harm to individuals, organizations or the environment (Krajcik et al, 2002).
Historically, in the United States, females are less interested in pursuing science than males: “by eighth grade, boys are twice as interested in STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) careers as girls are” (LiveScience, 2007, http://www.livescience.com/health/070827_girls_math.html). Therefore, this study will include scaffolding to address girls’ self-efficacy related to science. Also, the study will extend our understanding of the importance of scaffolding in the learning process of participants in a CSCL environment. This project, grounded in computer-supported collaborative learning, focuses on meaning making through the combined use of computers and collaboration:
Small group processes of collaborative knowledge building can construct meanings of symbolic and physical artifacts like words, gestures, tools, or media. The meanings of these meaningful artifacts are group accomplishments resulting from social interaction and are not attributable to individual participants. The artifacts retain intersubjective meaning, which can be learned or renegotiated later. The meaningful artifacts are interpreted by individuals from within the current situation or activity (Stahl, 2006, p.346).
Because research indicates that females prefer interactive and collaborative uses of technology, CSCL is an appropriate environment for this study: “Girls appear to be particularly interested in interactive technology that encourages communication, collaborative learning, the solving of complex social dilemmas, intensive writing and flexible problem solving (AAUW Educational Foundation Research 2000)” (Prinsen et al, 2007, p. 394). This study will include opportunities for students, teachers and female members of the local science community to collaborate with one another to investigate group-developed driving questions. The community of learners will address questions through dialogue and written discourse, collect data, discuss findings, and form group conclusions. They will create a presentation or other artifact to illustrate their understanding. Also, because the rules for these collaborative activities are explicitly expressed, girls will be more confident in participating in the project (Prinsen et al, 2007).
Scaffolding students is critical to the success of any project-based learning scenario. Krajcik and Blumenfeld (2006) are precise in their strategies for scaffolding:
Our scaffolding strategies include making the rationale behind explanations explicit, modeling how to construct explanations, providing students with opportunities to engage in explanation construction, and writing scaffoding comments on students’ investigation sheets (p. 324).
This study will incorporate the above cited techniques for scaffolding within the project-based learning environment.
According to a 2004 study, “While women make up nearly half of the U.S. workforce, they make up only 26 percent of the science and engineering workforce” (U.S. Department of Education, 2007, p. 3). Gender differences in perceptions about academic abilities in relation to math and science are specifically evidenced in middle school aged children:
In general, researchers have found that girls and women have less confidence in their math abilities than males do and that from early adolescence girls show less interest in math or science careers. This gender difference is interesting, and somewhat puzzling, given that males and females generally enroll in similar courses and display similar abilities (at least as measured by course grades). In other words, girls, particularly as they move out of elementary school and into middle and high school and beyond, often underestimate their abilities in mathematics and science (Institute of Education Sciences-U.S. Department of Education, 2007, p. 6).
Because of the emphasis on increasing female self-efficacy in science, female scientists will be recruited as participants in the collaborative work. According to the study conducted by the Institute of Education Science, one strategy for addressing female self-efficacy related to science is the use of female role models:
Teachers should expose girls to female role models who have achieved in math
or science in order to promote positive beliefs regarding women’s abilities in
math and science. Even in elementary school, girls are aware of the stereotype
that men are better in math and science than women are. Exposing girls to
female role models (e.g., through biographies, guest speakers, or tutoring by
older female students) can invalidate these stereotypes (Institute of Education Sciences-U.S. Department of Education, 2007, p. 5).
This study will address girls’ self-efficacy related to science and also extend our understanding of the learning process of participants through the use of scaffolding in a CSCL environment for adolescent boys and girls.
Studies indicate most students are bored in school (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993). Valuing course objectives and being engaged in course activities, as well as believing one has the ability to be successful in the course, are critical factors in learner motivation. “Beliefs of personal efficacy constitute the key factor of human agency. If people believe they have no power to produce results, they will not attempt to make things happen” (Bandura, 1977, p. 3). When students are not engaged and are bored in class, they are less likely to increase their knowledge (Blumenfeld et al, 1991). An inquiry learning culture produces engaged and active learning, as well as more enhanced production of explanations in both males and females (Prinsen et al, 2007). Learning sciences research suggests that the inquiry learning culture of project-based learning may offer a potential solution to the problem of boredom in school.
The theoretical background of project-based learning includes active construction, situated learning, social interactions and cognitive tools. Project based learning increases student engagement; therefore, students are less likely to be bored. Students learn by doing and applying ideas through real-world activities. The five key features of project-based learning include the following:
1. Instruction begins with a driving question and a problem to be solved.
2. Students explore the driving question by participating in authentic, situated- inquiry. As students explore the question, they develop an understanding of the discipline and also how to apply their understanding.
3. Students, teachers, and community members engage in collaborative activities to find answers to the question.
4. During the inquiry process, students are scaffolded with learning technologies that allow them to perform activities normally beyond their individual ability.
5. Students create a set of products to address the needs of the question. These products are shared artifacts that represent the learning of the class (Blumenfeld et al, 1991; Krajcik, et al., 1994; Krajcik, Czerniak, & Berger, 2002).
Learning sciences research shows that deep understanding occurs when learners actively construct meaning based on their experiences and interactions in the world. Situated learning requires that learning take place in real-world, authentic context. For example, in science, when students design their own investigation to answer a question that is important to them or to their community, they see the value of science and also see how science can be applied to solve real-world problems. Social interaction also plays a key role in learning. The best learning results when students, teachers and subject matter experts from the community work together in a situated activity to construct shared solutions to problems and new understandings of underlying principles. Deeper understanding is developed through sharing, applying and debating ideas with others and this process of back and forth interaction creates a community of learners (Vygotsky, 1978; Lave, 1991; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996). Also, the use of cognitive tools can amplify and expand what students are able to learn. Learning technologies can support students in accessing and collecting a range of information; provide tools for visualizing complex, abstract ideas; allow for distance collaboration; assist in planning, building and testing models; and allow for the development of multimedia knowledge artifacts that can be shared globally. Using the principles of group interaction to form collaborative communities to construct knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978; Lave, 1991; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996), the learning activities will occur in an authentic group context, be project based, and include activities with an authentic focus (Kearsley & Shneiderman, 1999). According to Vygotsky (1978) classroom social interactions should be arranged in such a way that weaker students will be “scaffolded” by stronger students. Vygotsky situates learning in the zone of proximal development which he posits is the “distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86).
Project-based learning creates a setting for the discovery that there may be more than one technique for interpreting data and more than one approach for solving a problem. “Individuals generate personal beliefs from their own perspectives, but they do so on the basis of sociocultural knowledge, shared language, and external representations. Further, these beliefs become knowledge through social interaction, communication, discussion, clarification, and negotiation. Knowledge is a socially mediated product” (Stahl, 2006, p. 205). Driving questions guide instruction and should be meaningful and important to learners. The driving questions are tools for organizing and directing the activities of the project. The driving questions provide an authentic context in which students will be able to establish and explore learning goals, as well as provide continuity and coherence to the project. Specific features of driving questions include:
1. The question is feasible; therefore, students can design and perform investigations to answer the question. 2. The question is worthwhile; therefore, appropriate responses should contain rich science content that aligns with national and state standards and relates to real-world science. 3. The question is contextualized in that the question is an important, real-world question. 4. The question is meaningful, interesting and exciting to learners. 5. The question is ethical in that in addressing the question, students will do no harm to individuals, organizations or the environment (Krajcik et al, 2002).
Historically, in the United States, females are less interested in pursuing science than males: “by eighth grade, boys are twice as interested in STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) careers as girls are” (LiveScience, 2007, http://www.livescience.com/health/070827_girls_math.html). Therefore, this study will include scaffolding to address girls’ self-efficacy related to science. Also, the study will extend our understanding of the importance of scaffolding in the learning process of participants in a CSCL environment. This project, grounded in computer-supported collaborative learning, focuses on meaning making through the combined use of computers and collaboration:
Small group processes of collaborative knowledge building can construct meanings of symbolic and physical artifacts like words, gestures, tools, or media. The meanings of these meaningful artifacts are group accomplishments resulting from social interaction and are not attributable to individual participants. The artifacts retain intersubjective meaning, which can be learned or renegotiated later. The meaningful artifacts are interpreted by individuals from within the current situation or activity (Stahl, 2006, p.346).
Because research indicates that females prefer interactive and collaborative uses of technology, CSCL is an appropriate environment for this study: “Girls appear to be particularly interested in interactive technology that encourages communication, collaborative learning, the solving of complex social dilemmas, intensive writing and flexible problem solving (AAUW Educational Foundation Research 2000)” (Prinsen et al, 2007, p. 394). This study will include opportunities for students, teachers and female members of the local science community to collaborate with one another to investigate group-developed driving questions. The community of learners will address questions through dialogue and written discourse, collect data, discuss findings, and form group conclusions. They will create a presentation or other artifact to illustrate their understanding. Also, because the rules for these collaborative activities are explicitly expressed, girls will be more confident in participating in the project (Prinsen et al, 2007).
Scaffolding students is critical to the success of any project-based learning scenario. Krajcik and Blumenfeld (2006) are precise in their strategies for scaffolding:
Our scaffolding strategies include making the rationale behind explanations explicit, modeling how to construct explanations, providing students with opportunities to engage in explanation construction, and writing scaffoding comments on students’ investigation sheets (p. 324).
This study will incorporate the above cited techniques for scaffolding within the project-based learning environment.
Thursday, October 16, 2008
Media Literacy
In preparing for the IVLA conference, I focused on visual literacy. Here are some thoughts related to visual literacy.
Visual texts usually simplify and/or generalize topics and omit minor details. Visual texts are excellent tools for capturing the relationships between key components and illustrate the structure or organization of the intended topic.
"Re-composing" means reading information in one form (text) and summarizing it in another form (timeline, storyboard, diagram or table).
To re-compose information, students need to think about the meaning of the selected paragraph before being able to summarize the paragraph in a visual form.
Re-composing is a key strategy in aiding comprehension.
Visual texts, such as flow charts, timelines, storyboards, and tree diagrams are ideal for providing a framework for writing.
Why teach with primary source material such as photographs?
By utilizing primary source material in your curriculum, you expose your students to artifacts from the past that are authentic and make history come alive. Students enjoy seeing objects from the period they are studying. The National Archives states that primary sources "fascinate students because they are real and they are personal: history is humanized through them."
Photographers come from different life experiences, and therefore photographs of the same experience may be expressed visually in very different ways. Photographs are different "takes" on the same story. The story looks very different, depending on who is telling the story in photographs.
Questions one might ask about photographs:
Do you think the photographer is depicting the event or situation in a fair way?
By looking at the picture/or pictures, what do you think the photographer's opinion is about this subject? What do you see that creates your response to the picture?
If you were creating photographs about a specific subject, how would you photograph that subject. Provide examples.
If viewer expectations influence the reading of an image, how can captions influence the visual perceptions of pictures? Does the caption make sense of what the viewer is looking at or frame the visual perception?
Caption activity: write possible captions for photographs
Documentary photographers capture significant historical events, but also reveal the photographer’s opinions. These photographs also stir emotions. Often, documentary photographers take specific pictures to educate people about issues in order to promote positive change.
Visual texts usually simplify and/or generalize topics and omit minor details. Visual texts are excellent tools for capturing the relationships between key components and illustrate the structure or organization of the intended topic.
"Re-composing" means reading information in one form (text) and summarizing it in another form (timeline, storyboard, diagram or table).
To re-compose information, students need to think about the meaning of the selected paragraph before being able to summarize the paragraph in a visual form.
Re-composing is a key strategy in aiding comprehension.
Visual texts, such as flow charts, timelines, storyboards, and tree diagrams are ideal for providing a framework for writing.
Why teach with primary source material such as photographs?
By utilizing primary source material in your curriculum, you expose your students to artifacts from the past that are authentic and make history come alive. Students enjoy seeing objects from the period they are studying. The National Archives states that primary sources "fascinate students because they are real and they are personal: history is humanized through them."
Photographers come from different life experiences, and therefore photographs of the same experience may be expressed visually in very different ways. Photographs are different "takes" on the same story. The story looks very different, depending on who is telling the story in photographs.
Questions one might ask about photographs:
Do you think the photographer is depicting the event or situation in a fair way?
By looking at the picture/or pictures, what do you think the photographer's opinion is about this subject? What do you see that creates your response to the picture?
If you were creating photographs about a specific subject, how would you photograph that subject. Provide examples.
If viewer expectations influence the reading of an image, how can captions influence the visual perceptions of pictures? Does the caption make sense of what the viewer is looking at or frame the visual perception?
Caption activity: write possible captions for photographs
Documentary photographers capture significant historical events, but also reveal the photographer’s opinions. These photographs also stir emotions. Often, documentary photographers take specific pictures to educate people about issues in order to promote positive change.
Sunday, October 12, 2008
Project-based Learning
Studies show that almost all students are bored in school (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993). When students are not engaged and are bored in class, they are less likely to learn (Blumenfeld et al, 1991). Learning sciences research suggests that project-based learning may offer a potential solution to the problem of boredom in school. Students are more engaged and therefore less likely to be bored. Students learn by doing and applying ideas through real-world activities. Project-based learning is a form of situtated learning. There are 5 key features of project-based learning: 1. Instruction Starts with a driving question, a problem to be solved; 2. Students explore the driving question by participating in authentic, situated-inquiry. As students explore the question, they develop an understanding of the discipline and also how to apply their understanding; 3. Students, teachers, and community members engage in collaborative activities to find answers to the question; 4. During the inquiry process, students are scaffolded with learning technologies that allow them to perform activities normally beyond their individual ability; 5.Students create a set of products to address the needs of the question. These products are shared artifacts that represent the learning of the class (Blumenfeld et al, 1991; Krajcik, et al., 1994; Krajcik, Czerniak, & Berger, 2002).
The theoretical background of project-based learning includes active construction, situated learning, social interactions and cognitive tools.
Learning sciences research shows that deep understanding occurs when learners actively constructs meaning based on their experiences and interactions in the world.Situated learning requires that learning take place in real-world, authentic context. For example, in science, when students design their own investigation to answer a question that is important to them or to their community, they see the value of science and also see how science can be applied to solve real-world problems. Social interaction plays a key role in learning. The best learning results when students, teachers and subject matter experts from the community work together in a situated activity to construct shared solutions to problems and new understandings of underlying principles. Deeper understanding is developed through sharing, applying and debating ideas with others and this process of back and forth interaction creates a community of learners. Also, the use of cognitive tools can amplify and expand what students are able to learn. Learning technologies can support students in accessing and collecting a range of information; provide tools for visualizing complex, abstract ideas; allow for distance collaboration; assist in planning, building and testing models; and allow for the development of multimedia knowledge artifacts that can be shared globally.
Project-based learning reinforces that there may be more than one way to interpret data and more than one way to solve a problem. Driving questions should guide instruction and be meaningful and important to learners. The driving question should be a tool for organizing and directing the activities of the project. It provides an authentic context in which students can establish and explore learning goals, as well as provide continuity and coherence to the project. Driving questions have the following features: feasible in that students can design and perform investigations to answer the question; 2. worthwhile in that they contain rich science content that aligns with national and state standards and relates to real-world science; 3. contextualized in that the questions are real-world and important; 4. meaningful and interesting and exciting to learners; and 5. ethical in that they do no harm to individuals, organizations or the environment (Krajcik et al, 2002).
The theoretical background of project-based learning includes active construction, situated learning, social interactions and cognitive tools.
Learning sciences research shows that deep understanding occurs when learners actively constructs meaning based on their experiences and interactions in the world.Situated learning requires that learning take place in real-world, authentic context. For example, in science, when students design their own investigation to answer a question that is important to them or to their community, they see the value of science and also see how science can be applied to solve real-world problems. Social interaction plays a key role in learning. The best learning results when students, teachers and subject matter experts from the community work together in a situated activity to construct shared solutions to problems and new understandings of underlying principles. Deeper understanding is developed through sharing, applying and debating ideas with others and this process of back and forth interaction creates a community of learners. Also, the use of cognitive tools can amplify and expand what students are able to learn. Learning technologies can support students in accessing and collecting a range of information; provide tools for visualizing complex, abstract ideas; allow for distance collaboration; assist in planning, building and testing models; and allow for the development of multimedia knowledge artifacts that can be shared globally.
Project-based learning reinforces that there may be more than one way to interpret data and more than one way to solve a problem. Driving questions should guide instruction and be meaningful and important to learners. The driving question should be a tool for organizing and directing the activities of the project. It provides an authentic context in which students can establish and explore learning goals, as well as provide continuity and coherence to the project. Driving questions have the following features: feasible in that students can design and perform investigations to answer the question; 2. worthwhile in that they contain rich science content that aligns with national and state standards and relates to real-world science; 3. contextualized in that the questions are real-world and important; 4. meaningful and interesting and exciting to learners; and 5. ethical in that they do no harm to individuals, organizations or the environment (Krajcik et al, 2002).
Learner-centered Principles from APA
The following principles were established by APA. I am planning to incorporate these principles in my instructional design strategy for incorporating computer-supported collaborative learning in an online course.
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles Revised (APA, 1997)
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process.
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process
of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.
4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative
and critical thinking.
6. Context of learning Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn,
is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits
of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication
with others.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -- are integral
parts of the learning process.
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles Revised (APA, 1997)
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process.
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process
of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.
4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative
and critical thinking.
6. Context of learning Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn,
is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits
of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication
with others.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -- are integral
parts of the learning process.
Saturday, October 11, 2008
Theoretical Constructs Operationalized
Based on my current readings, these are my thoughts on operationalizing identified theoretical constructs...
Knowledge Building and Discourse: Scardamalia & Bereiter (1994); Communities of Practice and Communities of Learners: Lave & Wenger (1991) and Wenger (1998); Situated Cognition and Expertise Building: Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989); Scaffolding and Zone of Proximal Development: Vygotsky (1978)
Knowledge Building allows for discourse, negotiation and sharing of ideas. KB also provides opportunities for the construction and development of knowledge artifacts. Knowledge building is centered in pedagogical practice (authentic activity, problem-based learning,situated cognition, etc). KB requires keeping a persistent record of discourse and providing common spaces for group members to share.
Communities of Practice/Communities of Learners requires common space for members and establishes that group size should be small. Scaffolding and supports should be created for multiple perspectives (small groups' preferences as well as individual learning preferences). Activities should reinforce transforming personal perspective to group perspective.
Scaffolding and ZPD: Activities should support interactions and enable the co-creation of knowledge and the development of knowledge artifacts. Should provide opportunities for reflection.
1. Build instruction based upon students' prior knowledge and community knowledge advancement. 2. Provide scaffolding that is tailored to the learners needs in achieving the goals of the moment. 3. Scaffolding is added gradually, modified, and removed based on the needs of the learner. 4. Allow opportunities for students to Externalize and Articulate their unformed and still developing understanding of concepts. Discourse becomes a means for collaborative problem solving. As understanding becomes more developed, articulation and externalization act as reinforces for learning in an interative knowledge building process where knowledge develops as ideas improvement.
5. Provide opportunities for reflection on cognitive activities or metacognition. Give students time to reflect on the process of learning and on the knowledge they are acquiring. Understanding is emergent 6. Build instruction from the concrete to the abstract.
Learning groups should be unstructured and students should be the facilitators. The learning environment of the group should be informal and roles of the participants should be emergent. Tasks are undefined for individual group members. Assessment should be in the form of group assessment as shared meaning and knowledge artifacts are produced.
Knowledge Building and Discourse: Scardamalia & Bereiter (1994); Communities of Practice and Communities of Learners: Lave & Wenger (1991) and Wenger (1998); Situated Cognition and Expertise Building: Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989); Scaffolding and Zone of Proximal Development: Vygotsky (1978)
Knowledge Building allows for discourse, negotiation and sharing of ideas. KB also provides opportunities for the construction and development of knowledge artifacts. Knowledge building is centered in pedagogical practice (authentic activity, problem-based learning,situated cognition, etc). KB requires keeping a persistent record of discourse and providing common spaces for group members to share.
Communities of Practice/Communities of Learners requires common space for members and establishes that group size should be small. Scaffolding and supports should be created for multiple perspectives (small groups' preferences as well as individual learning preferences). Activities should reinforce transforming personal perspective to group perspective.
Scaffolding and ZPD: Activities should support interactions and enable the co-creation of knowledge and the development of knowledge artifacts. Should provide opportunities for reflection.
1. Build instruction based upon students' prior knowledge and community knowledge advancement. 2. Provide scaffolding that is tailored to the learners needs in achieving the goals of the moment. 3. Scaffolding is added gradually, modified, and removed based on the needs of the learner. 4. Allow opportunities for students to Externalize and Articulate their unformed and still developing understanding of concepts. Discourse becomes a means for collaborative problem solving. As understanding becomes more developed, articulation and externalization act as reinforces for learning in an interative knowledge building process where knowledge develops as ideas improvement.
5. Provide opportunities for reflection on cognitive activities or metacognition. Give students time to reflect on the process of learning and on the knowledge they are acquiring. Understanding is emergent 6. Build instruction from the concrete to the abstract.
Learning groups should be unstructured and students should be the facilitators. The learning environment of the group should be informal and roles of the participants should be emergent. Tasks are undefined for individual group members. Assessment should be in the form of group assessment as shared meaning and knowledge artifacts are produced.
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